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FORGOTTEN WORLD (51) - (100)

All descriptions in order of posting on my blog [click here]

Contents

Introduction

In general, our news is dominated by very short-term events, such as an explosion or a killing or an election, with little reporting of the underlying causes of such events and very little tracking of on-going problems. Therefore a lot of serious issues go unforgotten for long periods of time to so many of us.

I run a weblog called NightHawk [click here] and I have used this blog to run an occasional series of weekly looks at some of the parts of the world that I feel are unreported. I then decided to pull together all these brief reports on to pages of my web site, so that you can check out some of the news stories that you might have overlooked.

The theme of this section then is that we have a moral obligation not to look away, not to ignore, not to forget. Instead we need to read, to remember, and above all to act.

(51) British Virgin Islands (18/12/06)

The British Virgin Islands (BVI) [click here] comprise around 60 semi-tropical Caribbean islands, ranging in size from the largest, Tortola (approximately 12 miles by 3 miles), to tiny uninhabited islets. They are located in the Virgin Islands archipelago, a few miles east of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Around 15 of the islands are inhabited, but the islands only have a total population of about 22,000.

The BVI is a British overseas territory. Therefore executive authority is invested in the British Queen and is exercised on her behalf by the Governor of the islands. Defence and foreign affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom.

The Head of Government is the Chief Minister, who is elected in a general election along with the other members of the ruling government as well as the members of the opposition. An Executive Council is nominated by the Chief Minister and appointed by the Governor. There is a unicameral Legislative Council made up of 13 seats.

In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. Roughly 400,000 companies were on the offshore registry by 2000.

(52) Bangladesh (19/12/06)

Originally part of India until 1947 and then the eastern part of Pakistan until 1971, Bangladesh [click here] became an independent nation after a bloody civil war. Bangladesh has the seventh largest population in the world (147 million) and it is one of the globe's most densely populated countries with its people crammed into a delta of rivers that empties into the Bay of Bengal. The country has annual monsoon floods and cyclones are frequent.

Bangladesh has made impressive progress in human development by focusing on increasing literacy, achieving gender parity in schooling, and reducing population growth. Nevertheless poverty remains deep and widespread; almost half of the population live on less than one dollar a day.

Six Bangladeshi factories supply Primark, Tesco, and Asda in the UK which insist that they meet minimum legal pay standards. However, a minimum wage in Bangladesh is officially £12 a month, athough the living wage is calculated by economists there at £22 a month. The least skilled garment workers can make only £7 or £8 a month; the most skilled can hope to earn £16, or an average of 5p an hour for an 80-hour week.

India is close to completing a little-known but massive project to construct an iron fence two and a half metres high running most of the length of its 4,100 km (2,500 mile) border with Bangladesh.

(53) The Netherlands (20/12/06)

The Netherlands [click here] - a nation of just over 16 million - is often referred to by the name Holland. This is not terminologically precise, as the provinces of North and South Holland in the western Netherlands are only two of the country's 12 provinces.

In the 17th century, the country was a great maritime nation which rivalled England which is why the English language has so many derogatory terms about the Dutch (such as "Dutch courage").

The bitter experience of invasion and occupation during World War II led the Netherlands to abandon neutrality in 1945 and become a leading supporter of international cooperation. Although their country has traditionally been one of the keener advocates of the European Union, Dutch voters echoed those in France when a referendum spurned the proposed EU constitution in 2005.

In the post-war years, the Netherlands has been noted for its relaxed liberal policies towards drugs, prostitution, same-sex marriage, abortion and euthanasia. However, this reputation is being challenged by growing anti-immigrant sentiments and the killing of the poltician Pim Fortuyn and the film-maker Theo van Gogh.

(54) New Zealand (21/12/06)

Most people know more about New Zealand [click here] from its appearance in "The Lord Of The Rings" film trilogy than they do by hearing about it in the news. Certainly the country is notable for its geographic isolation, being separated from Australia to the northwest by the Tasman Sea, some 2000 kilometres (1250 miles) across. Its closest neighbours to the north are New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. In Ma-ori, New Zealand is also known as Aotearoa, which is usually translated into English as the 'Land of the Long White Cloud'.

The population is only just over 4 million and the Parliament has only one chamber, the House of Representatives, which usually seats 120 Members of Parliament. Like the UK, the country has no written constitution.

New Zealand is the only nation in the world in which all the highest offices in the land have been occupied simultaneously by women, between March 2005 and August 2006 - The Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II; Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright; Prime Minister Helen Clark; Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives Margaret Wilson; and Chief Justice Dame Sian Elias.

Since 1984, successive governments have engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring, transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist and regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy. These free market policies are often quoted in economic debates about the management of other economies around the world. As well as having a high standard of living, New Zealand usually scores highly in any international ranking of quality of life.

(55) Antarctica (22/12/06)

Antarctica [click here] is 14.425 million km², making it the third-smallest continent after Europe and Australia. On average, it is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Some 98% of it is covered in ice, there has never been an indigenous population and there are no permanent human residents.

Seven countries - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom - claim parts of the territory of Antarctica. The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap. Australia has the greatest claim of Antarctic territory. Russia and the United States have reserved the right to make future claims.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 countries. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.

(56) Belgium (22/1/07)

In December 2006, Belgians reacted with shock and disbelief when the television channel RTBF announced that the Flemish part of the country had declared independence and that Belgium [click here] was no more. To back up the report during prime time viewing, the channel showed "live" footage of trams blocked at the new "border" and interviewed real-life politicians welcoming or denouncing the unilateral move of independence by the Flemish parliament.

In fact, the whole exercise was a spoof, intended only as a thought-provoking introduction to a television debate on the question which has long divided the two halves of Belgium, French-speaking Walloon and Dutch-speaking Flanders. But the overwhelming majority of viewers were completely taken in and the television’s switchboard was jammed by panicking callers.

How could such a hoax be taken so seriously? Modern Belgium only dates from 1830 and it has always been deeply fractured. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Romance Europe, it is linguistically divided with 60%, mainly in the northern region Flanders, speaking a version of Dutch (Flemish) and 40%, mainly in the southern region Wallonia, speaking French.

A popular game of "Name five famous Belgians" has so irritated at least one Belgian that he has compiled a list of 259 famous Belgians [click here].

(57) Uttar Pradesh (23/1/07)

There are endless reference in the media to India as a nation, usually focusing on its size (more than a billion people) and its growth (annual rate of around 8%). But there is little media reporting to illustrate the sheer scale and diversity of the nation.

The largest of India's 28 states is Uttar Pradesh [ click here] (UP) in the north of the country. With over 175 million inhabitants, UP is the most populous state in India and is also the most populous country subdivision in the world. On its own, if it was an independent nation, this state would be the world's sixth biggest country. Only China, India itself, the United States, Indonesia and Brazil have a higher population.

In Indian general elections, it fills more than one-seventh of the seats in India's Parliament and, such is the state's caste-based and sometimes violent politics that, currently a quarter of UP's MPs face criminal charges.

Uttar Pradesh is a very fertile region and a major contributor to the national foodgrain stock. It is also home to 78% of the national livestock population. However, economic growth faltered in the 1990s, and UP is now trailing some of India's better performing states.

(58) Canada (24/1/07)

Canada [click here] is the second largest country in the world after Russia (9.9 million sq km or 3.8 million sq miles), but it hardly features in media reports aound the world. At 32 million, its population is only about one-fifth of Russia's and nearly 90% of Canadians live within 200 km of the border with the United States, which means that Canada contains vast expanses of wilderness to the north.

Canada is composed of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. The three territories are the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon Territory. The provinces have a large degree of autonomy from the federal government, the territories somewhat less.

Canada is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. The relationship to its powerful neighbour is a defining factor for Canada. The US and Canada have the world's largest trading relationship.

(59) Morocco (25/1/07)

Morocco [click here] - population 32 million - is the most westerly of the North African countries known as the Maghreb. Strategically situated with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, but with a rugged mountainous interior, it stayed independent for centuries while developing a rich culture blended from Arab, Berber, European and African influences.

Morocco was a French protectorate from 1912 to 1956. Ever since independence, it has been ruled by a monarch, currently King Mohammed VI. He has been seen as a moderniser, and there has been some economic and social liberalisation, but the monarch retains sweeping powers. Under the constitution, the king can dissolve parliament and dismiss or appoint the prime minister.

Economic liberalisation has attracted foreign investment and officials point to better basic services in shanty towns and rural areas. But some non-government groups say little has changed, with poverty still widespread and unemployment remaining high. A key reform has been the Mudawana, a law which grants more rights to women. The king has said it is in line with Koranic principles, but religious conservatives have opposed it.

I once spent a week in Morocco [click here].

(60) Iceland (26/1/07)

Dominated for centuries by Norway and Denmark, Iceland [click here] became an independent republic in 1944. It only has a population of 292,000, but its citizens enjoy a standard of living among the highest in the world.

For many years, the country's prosperity depended on the fishing industry. While fish still makes up a large proportion of exports, it now accounts for less than 10% of gross domestic product. The economy is developing in new areas, not least tourism. banking and finance.

American forces had been stationed in the country without a break since World War II, but the last US troops left in September 2006. Although it has no armed forces, it is a member of NATO and the US says it will continue to defend Iceland as a NATO ally. Iceland remains outside the European Union.

(61) Czech Republic (5/2/07)

From the 16th century onwards, what was then called Bohemia increasingly came under the control of the Hapsburg, Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Between 1918-1993, the territory was the western two-thirds of Czechoslovakia. Following the split from Slovakia in January 1993, it became the Czech Republic [click here] - a new state of 10M - and entered the European Union in May 2004.

One of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has been recovering from recession since mid-1999. Growth has been led by exports to the EU, especially Germany, and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving.

However, like all the post-Communist states, poiltics has been both fractured and fractious. For six months after the General Election of June 2006, it was not possible to form a government that could win a majority vote in the 200-seat Chamber of Deputies, although the three-party, centre-right coalition narrowly won a vote of confidence in parliament in January 2007.

My wife is half Czech and I've visited the country no less than 20 times.

(62) Slovakia (6/2/07)

After the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire in the early 10th century, the Magyars gradually occupied the territory of the present-day Slovakia and, for the next millennium, it was a part of what eventually between the Hungarian and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Between 1918-1993, the territory was the eastern third of Czechoslovakia. Following the split from the Czechs in January 1993, it became Slovakia [click here] - a new state of 5M - and entered the European Union in May 2004.

Slovakia has mastered much of the difficult transition from a centrally planned economy to a modern market economy. Major privatizations are nearly complete, the banking sector is almost completely in foreign hands, and foreign investment has picked up. Slovakia's economy exceeded expectations in the early 2000s, despite recession in key export markets.

However, politics has been volatile in the 150-seat unicameral parliament. For the first five years after independence, there was growing international criticism of the lack of respect for minority rights and the democratic process shown by the authoritarian prime minister, Vladimir Meciar. In recent years though, coalition governments have been more democratic and more broadly centrist.

(63) Liberia (7/2/07)

Liberia [click here] in west Africa was created in 1847 to settle freed American slaves. Today it is a a country of only 3.3M struggling to recover after a 14-year civil war from 1989-2003 which cost an estimated 200,000 lives and displaced half the country's population. The UN currently has 15,000 peacekeepers deployed there.

Liberia has the first female leader of any African country in Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a Harvard-trained economist. It is a massively indebted country which owes some $3 billion ((£1.53 billion) to international financial institutions and at least as much in bilateral debts to individual countries, all built up by its corrupt former leaders, Samuel Doe and Charles Taylor. The total debt burden is more than six times the annual output of the economy.

(64) Singapore (8/2/07)

Singapore [click here] comprises the main island - linked by a causeway and a bridge to the southern tip of Malaysia - and around 50 smaller islands. Chinese make up more than 75% of the community of 4.4M; Malays and Indians make up much of the remainder; and there are many foreign workers.

Once a colonial outpost of Britain, Singapore has become one of the world's most prosperous and most technologically advanced places. According to the quality-of-life index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, it has the highest standard of living in Asia, and is ranked 11th in the world.

However, South-East Asia's hi-tech, wealthy city-state is also known for the conservatism of its leaders and its strict social controls. Although Singapore is a multi-party nation, the People's Action Party (PAP) has been the dominant force since independence. Rights groups have accused some politicians of using defamation suits to silence their opponents.

(65) United Nations (9/2/07)

Following the failure of the League of Nations formed in 1919, the United Nations [click here] was founded in 1945. It had its first meeting in London but its permanent headquarters is in New York. When the UN was founded in 1945, it had 51 members. Today that number has almost quadrupled to 192.

The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who assumed the post on 1 January 2007. The main governing bodies are the Security Council (which has permanent and temporary members) and the General Assembly (which is all the member states), but other important organs include the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ).

Some 30M people in 50 countries are reckoned to depend on UN relief programmes, while some 100,000 UN peackekeepers are deployed on 18 different missions around the world.

However, the UN is badly in need of reform. It was created just after the Second World War and reflects the power relationships that existed at that time with five permanent members of the Security Council (the P5): the USA, Russia, China, the UK and France. Today it needs new permanent members of the Security Counci including Germany, Japan, India, Brazil and an African country.

(66) Romania (26/2/07)

One of the last two entrants to the European Union, Romania [click here] had a GDP per head in 2005 of only $4,490 compared to $9,240 for the eight post-Communist entrants in 2004 and an EU average of $29,330. However, in population terms, at 22M Romania is the second biggest Eastern European country after Poland. Unlike most other Eastern European countries, the people of Romania speak a Romance language related to Italian and French. However, some 7% of Romanians are ethnic Hungarians. As many as 2M Romanians live abroad.

Following the uprising which brought about the execution of communist-era leader Nicolae Ceausescu on Christmas Day 1989, former communists dominated politics until 1996 when a centrist government came to power. It became involved in prolonged political feuding which did little or nothing to promote economic reform. The left returned in 2000 when Ion Iliescu was re-elected president. However, in 2004, Traian Basescu, the popular centrist mayor of Bucharest, became president.

(67) Bulgaria (27/2/07)

One of the last two entrants to the European Union, Bulgaria [click here] had a GDP per head in 2005 of only $3,480 compared to $9,240 for the eight post-Communist entrants in 2004 and an EU average of $29,330. It has a population of just 8M. Bulgarian is a Slavic language like Russian or Polish. However, some 9% of Bulgarians are ethnic Turks. Around 800,000 Bulgarians live abroad.

Throughout the first half of the 1990s, Bulgaria was wracked by political instability and strikes. The former communists remained a powerful influence. Although the end of the decade was more stable, there was little tangible progress with economic reform. Under Bulgaria's former king, Simeon II, who was prime minister between 2001 and 2005, the country pressed ahead with market reforms designed to meet EU economic targets. The country achieved growth, saw unemployment fall from highs of nearly 20% and inflation come under control, but incomes and living standards remain low.

(68) Siberia (28/2/07)

Of course, Russia is always in the news, but usually we hear only of events in the most western part of this huge country. Siberia [click here] - about which we hear nothing - actually makes up about 56% of Russia's territory making it similar in size to Canada or the United States or China.

Siberia's population of around 25M resides mainly along the Trans-Siberian Railway and in the south and amounts to 15% of the whole Russian population. However, the economic chaos of the post-communist period has seen gross domestic product in the region fall by a half.

It is the most northern, the coldest and the least populated part of Siberia that has immense natural riches. The region contains ores of almost all economically valuable metals with some of the world's largest deposits of nickel, gold, lead, molybdenum, diamonds, silver and zinc, as well as extensive unexploited resources of oil and natural gas.

(69) Chile (1/3/07)

Chile [click here] - a Latin American country of 16.5M - has an unusual, ribbon-like shape - 4,300 km long and on average 175 km wide - which gives it a hugely varied climate. This ranges from the world's driest desert - the Atacama - in the north, through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, to a snow-prone Alpine climate in the south, with glaciers, fjords and lakes.

Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations. It has been relatively free of the coups and arbitrary governments that have blighted the continent. The exception was the 17-year rule of General Augusto Pinochet, whose 1973 coup was one of the bloodiest in 20th-century Latin America and whose dictatorship left more than 3,000 people dead and missing.

The authoritarian Pinochet-era constitution has been revised and the judicial system overhauled. Chile is now relatively free of crime and official corruption. The country had Latin America's fastest-growing economy in the 1990s and has weathered recent regional economic instability. But it faces the challenges of having to diversify its copper-dependent economy - it is the largest world producer - and of addressing uneven wealth distribution.

(70) World Bank (2/3/07)

The World Bank [click here] - located in Washington DC - is a group of five international organisations responsible for providing finance and advice to countries for the purposes of economic development and eliminating poverty. The Bank came into formal existence on 27 December 1945 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements. Today it has 185 countries in membership.

The World Bank's activities are focused on developing countries, in fields such as human development (e.g. education, health), agriculture and rural development (e.g. irrigation, rural services), environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban regeneration, electricity), and governance (e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development).

Joseph Stiglitz was a member of the Council of Economic Advisors under President Clinton who then became the Chief Economist at the World Bank. In his book "Globalisation And Its Discontents" [for my review click here], he argues for changes to the governance of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to give developing countries a stronger voice, more transparent policy formulation and decision-making by bodies like the IMF and the World Bank, more consultation with countries about their development strategies, more attention to the sequencing and pacing of economic reforms, greater provision of bankruptcy and standstill arrangements, and interventions to reduce excessive short-term capital flows.

(71) Kosovo (26/3/07)

When is a country not a country? Perhaps when it is Kosovo [click here], the home of 2.47M people, 88% of them ethnic Albanians and a mere 7% Serbian. When the former Yugoslavia started its descent into brutality and break-up, the original source of secessionist violence was in the province of Kosovo, but this is now the last part of the former Yugoslavia to settle its status. In 1989, Slobodan Milosovic abolished autonomy in Kosovo and a programme of ethnic cleansing in 1999 was only stopped by a NATO air campaign followed by the arrival of UN troops.

Now the UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari of Finland has proposed a compromise plan between the demand of the Serbs that Kosovo remains a part of Serbia and the plea of the Kosovans for full independence. Under this plan, Kosovo would have a flag, a national anthem, a constitution, a central bank, a currency and even a fledgling army, but would not yet have full independence. His plan is to be put to the UN's Security Council today.

It is clear why the Kosovans want independence given their treatment by the Serbs, but why to do the Serbs want to retain sovereignity over Kosovo? It all goes back to 1389 when the Serbs lost an epic battle there to the Ottoman Turks it and embraces the region being the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church.

(72) Cambodia (27/3/07)

Cambodia [click here] gained full independence from the French in 1953. Following a five-year civil war in which the Americans backed General Lol Non, the Communist Khmer Rouge took power in 1975 and, over the next 3 years 8 months and 20 days, a massive collectivisation programme resulted in the death of maybe 2.5 million of the 7 million population through forced labour, starvation and massacre (another million are believed to have fled abroad).

The Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown by the intervention of Vietnamese troops with UN-sponsored elections following in 1993. However, Vietnamese still have a right of entry to Cambodia and there is much resentment by Cambodians about Vietnam's influence in the country. The Khmer Rouge period is still raw in people's minds and indeed the current Prime Minister Samdech Hun Sen is a former Khmer Rouge commander who subsequently went on to oppose them. The population is up from a mere 3.5M in 1979 to over 13M today.

The country remains one of the world's poorest with GDP per head barely $300 (£154). The economy is mainly agrarian and more than 30% of the people live below the poverty line. Average government spending on health services annually is just £1-£2 per person.

I made a visit to to the country in March 2006 [for an account click here].

(73) Mauritania (28/3/07)

Mauritania [click here] is a mineral-rich country in north-west Africa which is twice the size of France. Its 3.2 million population mixes white and black Moors and black Mauritanians of several ethnic groups. The white Moorish elite have traditionally held power and black citizens have been discriminated against.

In spite of a 1981 decree outlawing slavery, a centuries-old system of bondage still operates with slaves serving their masters and being passed on as family chattels from generation to generation [for more information click here].

The country obtained its independence from France in 1960, but has seen little stability in that period. A military junta is about to step down and hand over power to a democractially elected civilian government. Mauritania is an Islamic republic, a member of the Arab League, and an ally of the US in its war on terror and controversially it has diplomatic relations with Israel.

(74) Brazil (29/3/07)

Brazil [click here] is the largest and most populous country in South America - it takes up almost half the continent - and the fifth largest in the world in both area and population. The country was colonized by Portugal and it is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas. It is a multiracial nation with a population totalling 188M, composed of European, Amerindian, African and Asian elements. It has the largest Roman Catholic population in the world.

Brazil has a history of economic boom and bust and its development has been hampered by high inflation and foreign debt. It has had to be bailed out in times of crisis, but economic reforms in the 1990s brought some stability to the country's finances. Social conditions can be harsh in the big cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, where a third of the population lives in favelas, or slums.

The economic giant is one of the world's biggest democracies. Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, popularly known as Lula, secured a second term in a landslide election victory in October 2006. He promised to boost economic growth and to narrow the gap between rich and poor.

Brazil includes much of the world's biggest rain forest around the Amazon, whose exploitation has become a major environmental concern.

I visited the country in 2001 [for an account click here].

(75) United Arab Emirates (30/3/07)

The United Arab Emirates [click here] is a Middle Eastern country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula, comprising seven emirates: Abu Dhabi, Ajma-n, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain.

These emirates were once little more than oil outposts in the desert, but they are fast reinventing themselves as a cultural and recreational hub with tens of billions of dollars of investment transforming Abu Dhabi and Dubai especially.

The Emirates' capital plans an "upscale cultural district" on the island of Saadiyat, with a $400 million Guggenheim museum part of a $27 billion government-funded development that will include museums, a concert hall and art galleries alongside two golf courses, hotels and an "iconic 7-star property".

Life is not wonderful for everyone in the Emirates. Migrant construction workers in Dubai earn an average wage of US $150 per month and any form of strike or protest is illegal under UAE labour law.

(76) Costa Rica (7/5/07)

Costa Rica [click here] is the only Central American country that I have visited and it is in a class of its own in the region. It gained its independence from Spain via Mexico in 1821. Although there are claims that the country has had more than 115 years of uninterrupted democracy, their presidential election history shows otherwise. Nonetheless, the country has had at least six decades years of uninterrupted democracy which is by far the longest in Latin America.

For decades now, it has stood out for its stability and it has no standing army. Its 4.3 million citizens have benefited from the most developed welfare system in the region and enjoy one of the highest life expectancy levels in the Western hemisphere and better living standards than their war-torn neighbours. The current President Oscar Arias was president from 1986-90 and resumed the office in February 2006. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his role in talks that helped to end two civil wars in the region.

(77) Andorra (8/5/07)

For more than 700 years, Andorra [click here] has been ruled jointly by the leader of France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel. The first Andorran Constitution was passed in 1993, establishing a parliamentary co-principality based on a 28-member parliament.. The co-princes remain Andorra's heads of state but the roles are largely honorary.

Almost hidden on the border between France and Spain, the tiny principality is a land of narrow valleys and mountainous landscapes whose mainstay of the economy is tourism. Only 64,000 people live there, but an estimated 10 million people visit each year, drawn by the winter sports, summer climate and duty-free goods. It has the highest life expectancy in the world at 83.52 years (2007 est).

(78) Mali (9/5/07)

The landlocked West African country of Mali [click here] was the core of ancient empires going back to the fourth century. It was conquered by the French in the middle of the 19th century and gained its independence in 1960. Since then, it has suffered droughts, rebellions, a coup and 23 years of military dictatorship. However, since 1992, when its first democratically-elected president took power, it has had a civilian government.

Mali is the seventh largest country of Africa but one of the world's poorest nations. 65% of its land area is desert or semidesert and several prolonged periods of drought have occurred there over the last century. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger River. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labour force is engaged in farming and fishing. Its 14 million citizens have a life expectancy of only 47 years.

(79) Tajikistan (10/5/07)

A former Soviet republic, Tajikistan [click here] plunged into civil war almost as soon as it became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991. The five-year civil war between the Moscow-backed government and the Islamist-led opposition, in which up to 50,000 people were killed and over one-tenth of the population fled the country, ended in 1997 with a United Nations-brokered peace agreement. It now faces the challenge of strengthening peace and reviving its ruined economy.

There are 6.3 million people in the landlocked country and, while Tajiks are the largest ethnic group, Uzbeks make up a quarter of the population. It is a very young citizenry with nearly half of Tajikistan's population under 14 years of age. It is the poorest country in Central Asia, having few natural resources, but a new bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan is being built which will help the country to have access to trade lines with South Asia.

(80) Cook Islands (11/5/07)

The Cook Islands [click here] has one of the tiniest poulations of any country in the world with just 18,700 citizens.This South Pacific Ocean nation consists of 15 small islands spread over 2.2 million square kilometres of ocean (roughly the size of India), divided into two distinct groups: the Southern Cook Islands and the Northern Cook Islands of coral atolls.

It is a self-governing parliamentary democracy in free association with New Zealand which is responsible for its defence. Unusually the Cook Islands are not part of the United Nations. Tourism is the country's number one industry, far ahead of offshore banking, pearls, marine and fruit exports.

(81) Switzerland (28/5/07)

Switzerland [click here] is a country in the middle of Europe that is most famous for its legendary neutrality of the last 500 years - informally for about 300 years and then formally since just after the Napoleonic wars of the early 19th century. It remains in some ways an isolated country - it only joined the United Nations in 2002 and it is one of the few countries in Europe that is not a member of the European Union.

In spite of - and maybe because of - its neutrality and isolation, its 7.5 million citizens enjoy one of the most stable and one of the most affluent countries in the world. The country has a strong system of local devolution with much power in no less than 26 cantons. Under the constitution, the make-up of the government is not determined by parliamentary majority but in accordance with a four-party power-sharing agreement, established in 1959 and known as the "magic formula".

Switzerland is a European cultural and linguistic crossroads; about two-thirds of the population speak German, around one-fifth French and about 7% Italian. Romansch, the fourth national language, is spoken by less than 1% of the population.

(82) Namibia (29/5/07)

What is today called Namibia [click here] was in the late 1800s taken over by Germany which it called South West Africa. South Africa seized the country during the First World War and administered it under a League of Nations mandate. Namibians finally achieved independence in 1990 after a bush war of almost 25 years.

Namibia is a huge country, mainly desert, but it only has a population of 2 million so that, after Mongolia, it is the least densely populated country in the world (2.5 persons per km²). Like its African neighbours, Namibia's well-being is being threatened by the HIV/Aids epidemic, which is estimated to affect 25% of Namibians. Politically the country is still dominated by SWAPO which led the long fight against rule by South Africa.

(83) Peru (30/5/07)

I once spent a week in Peru [click here]. The country - the 20th largest in the world - gained its independence in 1821 and today it is a nation of some 29 million.

In its recent past, Peru [click here] has alternated between democracy and military dictatorship. Also, it is deeply divided politically and economically. The country is rich in copper, silver, lead, zinc, oil and gold. Despite this, Peru's progress has been held back by corruption and the failure of successive governments to deal with social and economic inequality.

A small elite of Spanish descent controls most of the wealth and political power, while indigenous Peruvians are largely excluded from both and make up many of the millions who live in poverty. According to official sources, half of the total population is regarded as poor, including around one in five considered extremely poor

(84) Bhutan (1/6/07)

Bhutan [click here] is a tiny, remote and impoverished kingdom nestling in the Himalayas between its powerful neighbours, India and China. Almost completely cut off for centuries, it has recently tried to let in some aspects of the outside world while fiercely guarding its ancient traditions. The population is only 672,000 and national dress is compulsory - the knee-length wrap-around "gho" for men and the ankle-length dress known as the "kira" for women.

The Wangchuk hereditary monarchy has wielded power since 1907 but, in 1999, the fourth king of Bhutan created a ten member body called the Lhengye Zhungtshog (Council of Ministers) and the country is set to make the switch to a two-party parliamentary democracy. Elections are scheduled for 2008 and a draft constitution envisages a two-chamber parliament.

(85) Chonqqing (2/6/07)

It is a city that, with a population of 10 million, is already larger than many countries around the world. But it is the fastest growing city on earth and by 2020 its population is expected to have doubled to 20 million. But hardly anyone has heard of it. It is the city of Chongqing [click here] in China. Thanks to the world's biggest hydro-electric dam, which will open in two years, and the £114 billion the Chinese government has spent on infrastructure in the past seven years, Chongqing will open up the western Chinese heartlands and become a central force in what may become the world's most powerful country.

Even by the standards of the giant construction site that is modern-day China, Chongqing's building frenzy is impressive. More transport links have been built here in the past four years than in the previous hundred. More new floor space is being completed than in Shanghai. As well as eight new railways, eight highways and eight bridges, the port is in the midst of a £1.15 billion redevelopment and the airport's capacity is planned to quintuple by 2010.

Set in the middle reaches of the Yangtze, this former trading centre and treaty port has long been the economic hub of western China. However, after its government was given municipal control of surrounding territory the size of many countries, it has grown and grown, becoming what is now the world's biggest municipality with 31 million residents (more people than Iraq, Peru or Malaysia).

(86) Chad (2/7/07)

Chad [click here] is Africa's fifth-largest nation, a land-locked, largely semi-desert country which gained its independence from France in 1960 and today has a population of 9M. Post-independence history has been marked by instability and violence stemming mostly from tension between the mainly Arab-Muslim north and the predominantly Christian and animist south. President Deby, in power since 1990, faces an armed rebellion by several groups and incursions from neighbouring Sudan.

Chad suffers from inadequate infrastructure and internal conflict. Poverty is rife, and health and social conditions compare unfavourably with those elsewhere in the region. It is classed as one of the most corrupt nation's in the world. However, the country is rich in gold and uranium and stands to benefit from its recently-acquired status in 2003 as an oil-exporting state.

(87) Paraguay (3/7/07)

Paraguay [click here] is a landlocked South American country of only just over 6M people.

Politically, it is highly troubled. It experienced more than three decades of dictatorship under Alfredo Stroessner, who was ousted in 1989. The end of his iron-fisted rule did not bring political stability. Factional splits led to the assassination of a vice-president, the resignation of a president and an attempted coup. Stroessner's party, the National Republican Association-Colorado Party, is still in power.

Economically, it is equally challenged. With few mineral resources, the country's economy revolves around agriculture. The 1990s saw slow, steady growth, but more latterly the economy has been in serious trouble. Around 60% of Paraguayans live in poverty. Corruption is widespread and the country is a centre for smuggling, money laundering and organised crime.

(88) Alaska (4/7/07)

Alaska [click here] is one of the 50 states of the USA. It was purchased by the United States from Russian interests in 1867 for a mere $7M. It became the 49th state of the USA in 1959.

It is easily the largest state in geographical size and, thanks to its minerals and oil, one of the richest and most ethnically diverse. It has a population of only about 630,000 in an area of 663,267 square miles, so there is more than one square mile per person. The most populous city is Anchorage with 260,000 but the capital is Juneau. Alaska has the lowest individual tax burden in the USA and is one of only six states with no state sales tax and one of seven states that do not levy an individual income tax.

(89) Niger (5/7/07)

Historically a gateway between North and sub-Saharan Africa, Niger [click here] is a large, landlocked country bordered by seven others. It came under French rule in the late 1890s. After independence in 1960, its progress was held back by political instability and a five-year drought which devastated livestock and crops.

Today Niger is rated by the United Nations as one of the world's least-developed nations. With little primary education, it has one of the lowest literacy rates in the world. Its health system is basic and disease is widespread. Its 13M citizens have a life expectancy of only 44 years.

The country's main export, uranium, is prone to price fluctuations and agriculture is threatened by the encroaching desert.

(90) Micronesia (6/7/07)

Micronesia [click here], in the western Pacific, consists of some 600 islands grouped into four states: Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk and Yap. Although, it occupies a very small total land mass, it is scattered over an ocean expanse five times the size of France.

Despite its small population (a mere 11,000) and the large amount of incoming aid from the US, Japan and elsewhere, Micronesia has relatively high unemployment, a matter compounded by increasing numbers of Filipino migrant workers. Many Micronesians live without electricity or running water, which is in short supply and is sometimes rationed.

Though formally independent, in 1986 Micronesia signed a "Compact of Free Association" with the US. Under this, Washington took on responsible for defence and gained the right to set up military bases and deny other nations access to Micronesia. In return, Micronesia received financial assistance averaging $100m per year, and the right of Micronesians to live and work in the US. Micronesia also takes its cue from Washington on foreign policy.

(91) Guatemala (30/7/07)

Guatemala [click here] is a Central American country of 13M people - the most populous nation in the isthmus - with a rich culture and beautiful locations but a bitter recent history and deeply troubled present.

In 1996, the country emerged from a 36-year-long civil war which pitted Leftist, mostly Mayan insurgents against the army, which - backed by the US - waged a vicious campaign to eliminate the guerrillas. More than 200,000 people - most of them civilians - were killed or disappeared. Despite an official finding that 93% of all atrocities carried out during the war had been committed by the security forces, moves to bring those responsible to account started only after a long delay.

Guatemalans live in one of the most inequitable societies in the region. Poverty is particularly widespread in the countryside and among indigenous communities. Illiteracy, infant mortality and malnutrition are among the highest in the region, life expectancy is among the lowest and, in common with many of its neighbours, the country is plagued by organised crime, drug-trafficking and violent street gangs. Hundreds of thousands of Guatemalans who fled the civil war still live abroad.

(92) Swaziland (31/7/07)

Swaziland [click here] is a land-locked African country of only 1.1M people (most of the same Bantu tribe) with an odd location since it is almost entirely surrounded by its larger, more prosperous neighbour South Africa (it adjoins Mozambique in the east). It is one of the world's last remaining absolute monarchies and Its king King Mswati III rules by decree over his subjects, most of whom live in the countryside and follow traditional ways of life.

The current king has been on the throne since 1986, and is upholding the traditions of his father, King Sobhuza II, who reigned for almost 61 years and scrapped the constitution in 1973. He rules by decree, has banned opposition parties and trade unions and says the country is not yet ready for multi-party politics. Like his father, he is taking multiple wives.

Many Swazis live in chronic poverty and food shortages are widespread. Aids is taking a heavy toll with more than 40% of the population believed infected with HIV.

I travelled through the country in 2004 [for my account click here].

(93) Oman (1/8/07)

Oman [click here] - a state of 3M citizens - occupies the south-east corner of the Arabian peninsula and is the oldest independent state in the Arab world. Under Sultan Said bin Taimur, who came to power in 1938, the country experienced decades of international isolation, a society run along feudal lines and internal rebellion.

However, after deposing his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos Bin Said - who rules by decree - opened up the country, embarked on economic reforms and boosted spending on health, education and welfare. As with other Gulf nations, oil is the mainstay of the economy, providing a large chunk of GDP but, compared to its neighbours, Oman is a modest producer. Agriculture and fishing are important sources of income.

Most Omanis follow the Ibadi sect of Islam - the only remaining expression of Kharijism, which was created as a result of one of the first schisms within the religion. The country has so far been spared the militant Islamist violence that has plagued some of its neighbours.

(94) Kyrgyzstan (2/8/07)

Kyrgyzstan [click here] is a multi-ethnic, but mainly Muslim, state of 5M comprising Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Russians, Ukrainians and Germans, and a small number of Uighur, Dungan - Chinese Muslims - and Koreans. It became independent with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. In 2005 a popular revolt, sparked by allegations of government interference in parliamentary elections and fuelled by poverty and corruption, swept from power the former president, Askar Akayev, who had ruled since independence.

Kyrgyzstan has found itself right in the middle of the so-called 'war on terror'. Following the 11 September attacks on the USA, Kyrgyzstan agreed to allow US forces to use Bishkek's Manas airport as a base. Then, in September 2003, agreement was reached with Moscow allowing Russian rapid reaction forces to deploy at the Kant airbase. The Russians are stationed just 30 km (19 miles) from their US counterparts.

(95) Finland (3/8/07)

Finland [click here] experienced hundreds of years of Swedish rule, followed by a further century of Russian control, before Independence was achieved in 1917. However, so long as the Soviet Union existed, Finland had to handle a difficult relationship with its giant eastern neighbour and indeed the Soviet Union invaded in 1939. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 allowed Finland to step out of the Cold War shadow. It became a member of the European Union in 1995 and indeed it is the only Nordic EU member to use the Euro as the national currency.

The country spends heavily on education, training and research - investment which pays dividends by delivering one of the best-educated and trained workforces in the world. This has been a key factor in the development of a modern, competitive economy in which a cutting-edge telecommunications sector has been added to the traditional timber and metals industries.

Economically Finland - a nation of only 5M people - punches well above its weight. Finland is 11th on the 2006 United Nations Human Development Index and ranked as the sixth happiest nation in the world by a subjective independent scientific study. According to the World Audit Democracy profile, it is the freest nation in the world, in terms of civil liberties, freedom of the press, low corruption levels and political rights.

(96) Ghana (27/8/07)

Ghana [click here] was the first former British colony in Africa to gain independence, achieving this in 1957. At that time, it had one of the strongest economies on the continent. However, within a decade, the country had accumulated foreign debts of $1billion. Political turmoil and a fall in both the price and the production of cocoa - of which it is the world's second largest producer - saw the decline continue until the 1980s.

Ever since the 1981 coup led by Jerry Rawlings, although political instability and violence have continued, there has been market-oriented reforms and economic growth. Since 2000, when John Kufuor was elected President, the country has had free and fair elections, stable government, further economic reforms, and substantial debt relief. As result, Ghana is now seen as one of the brightest prospects in all of Africa. Indeed, in June 2007, oil was found and hopes are now even higher for economic prosperity for its 22 million citizens.

(97) Taiwan (28/8/07)

When is a country not a country? perhaps when it is the island of Taiwan [click here]. Legally Taiwan - which formally calls itself the Republic of China (ROC) - is a province of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and most nations - and the United Nations - acknowledge the position of the Chinese government that this is the case. Therefore Taiwan has formal diplomatic relations with only two dozen countries - Pacific, South American and African states in the main - and no seat at the UN. However, for all practical purposes, Taiwan has been an independent country for some 50 years and, in that time, its 23 million citizens have seen spectacular economic growth and enjoyed rising prosperity.

How has this happened? In 1949, following a bitter civil war, the Chinese nationalist government of President Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan ahead of the advance of the communists under Mao Zedong . The government-in-exile then established Taipei as its capital and for decades hoped to reclaim control over the mainland. Eventually, in the early 1990s, Taiwan made the transition from an authoritarian one-party state to a democracy. Meanwhile economic liberalisation, strong investment and substantial exports have driven a successful, high-tech economy.

Today China is as strong as ever in its insistence that - like Hong Kong - Taiwan must be returned to its control and it has sanctioned the use of force against Taiwan if it moves toward declaring statehood. It also insists that no state can have formal ties with both mainland China and Taiwan. Some 600 Chinese missiles aimed at the island and periodic military exercises back up China's stance.

(98) Sierra Leone (29/8/07)

Sierra Leone [click here] was a British colony until 1961 and the location of one of the most brutal civil wars in Africa's history from 1991-2002 when some 50,000 died and many had limbs hacked off. More than 17,000 British and UN troops helped to stop the conflict. However, most of the problems that existed before the war - poverty, bad governance, corruption, massive unemployment and a disillusioned youth - remain.

Nevertheless, in August 2007, the country of just 7 million set a new course with the largely peaceful elections of a new president and a new parliament. Sierra Leone is rich in diamonds and, whereas the trade in illicit gems (known as "blood diamonds" for their role in funding conflicts) perpetuated the civil war, now diamond exports have helped to buoy the post-conflict economy.

British troops may no longer be in action in the country, but the UK remains the largest donor and has introduced substantial debt relief.

(99) Abkhazia (30/8/07)

The break-up of the former Soviet Union has led not just to 15 new independent states but to a host of territorial disputes and conflicts, some of which - like Chechnia - are well-known and others of which - such as Abkhazia [click here] - are virtually unknown. Now Abkhazia may be formally part of Georgia and only have a population of around 180,000 but, for all practical purposes, it has been independent since a fierce civil war in the early 1990s ended in 1994 when it signed a ceasefire with Georgia.

UN observers and about 2,000 Russian peacekeeping troops are stationed in the territory. Although no state has officially recognised Abkhazia's independence, Russia has been accused of supporting the breakaway region to destabilise Georgia. Moscow has issued Russian passports to around 90% of Abkhazians. The latest controversy is over Russia's intention to import building materials from Abkhazia to help prepare for the 2014 Winter Olympics to be held in neighbouring Sochi.

(100) Norway (31/8/07)

In at least one respect, Norway [click here] is an unusual European country: it is not a member of the European Union and has currently no wish to become a member. Referenda in 1972 and 1994 failed to secure a majority in favour of EU membership.

Norway is happy to stand alone in large part thanks to the discovery in the late 1960s of offshore oil and gas deposits. Annual oil revenue now amounts to around $40bn (£21bn). More than half of Norway's exports come from this sector. To counter inflation, there is cross-party agreement to restrict spending of oil revenue. The very considerable surplus is invested for future generations.

Norway's 4.6 million people enjoy the second highest GDP per-capita in the world and the country has maintained 1st place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for the fifth consecutive year (2006).

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